September began with a leaders’ summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, a China-dominated regional grouping, and will soon see a summit of another China-dominated international gathering, the BRICS. In this context, it is worth examining the creation last month of a new regional bloc, the Mecca Joint Defence Agreement, comprising Türkiye, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, and the implications for Chinese foreign and security policy. To start with, is China likely to join this new grouping? While it has shown enthusiasm since its economic reforms began nearly five decades ago in joining international organisations and regional groupings or creating its own…
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