Galwan to Kashmir: What distinguishes intelligence from response failures?

On June 15, 2020, the Indian Army was taken by surprise as its troops clashed with the Chinese Army on the Galwan heights, in Ladakh. At least 20 Indian soldiers and an unknown number of Chinese soldiers were killed in the first fatal clash between the two countries in more than three decades. Was this an instance of intelligence failure? Accusations of intelligence failure as explanations for military surprises tend to come from retired military officials and political opponents in the aftermath of incidents and crises . The reaction of governments, when faced with such surprises, is usually to remain…